Notions
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leal pluralism
taking into account a plurality of different legal arrangements, to which different groups belong3. To this diversity corresponds, upstream, a plurality of sources; precise methods (such as the Kelsen pyramid of norms) allow them to be arranged between them. Downstream, the right to be different is based on a pluralism of rules, especially in essential areas where the identity of individuals must be preserved. Identity and culture being inseparable, pluralism meets culture here (Ralser, 2005).
Ralser,2005 -
labeling
the theory refers to the social construction of deviance. Social groups create deviance by instituting norms the transgression of which constitutes deviance, by applying those norms to certain individuals and by labeling them as deviants. For example, drug addicts, crazy people, fat people, etc. Labeling is a representation and discourse ordering the social world, based on values taken as norms at a given moment. Social labeling of certain groups of people results in them being attributed a negative image by the rest of the actors in the system.
Becker, 1963 -
linguistic diversity
there are between 6,500 and 7,000 languages in the world, some of which are spoken by more than one hundred million people (Chinese, English, Malay, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic, French, Hindi ...) and the others by a handful of speakers. The gravitational model (Calvet, 1999) starts from the idea that languages are linked together by bilinguals. Around a hyper-central language, English, whose speakers have a strong tendency to monolingualism, revolve around ten super-central languages whose speakers, when they are bilingual, tend to speak either a language of same level, ie English. Around these super central languages revolve a hundred central languages which are in turn the gravitational center of thousands of peripheral languages. Languages are unevenly distributed over the surface of the globe: Europe is a continent poor in languages while Africa and Asia account for more than 60% of the world's languages
Calvet, 2004 -
learning city
it effectively mobilizes its resources in all sectors to promote inclusive learning from basic to higher education; revives learning within families and communities; facilitates learning for employment and at work; expands the use of modern learning techniques; enhances quality and excellence in learning; and promotes a culture of lifelong learning. In doing so, the city promotes individual empowerment and social cohesion, economic development and cultural prosperity as well as sustainable development. A learning city promotes lifelong learning for all.
Unesco, 2015 -
learning
a process by which an individual assimilates information, ideas and values and thereby acquires knowledge, skills, abilities and / or skills (Cedefop, 2002)
CEDEFOP, 2002 -
lifelong learning
activity undertaken over the course of life to improve knowledge, skills and competences from a personal, civic, social and / or professional perspective.
CEDEFOP, 2002 -
learning cultures
each country has its own culture, identity, history and practices in education and training, as well as its own approach and system called a 'learning culture'. They can vary considerably within Europe, with the systems for “valuing learning” themselves being very varied. The main objective is to facilitate the mutual exchange of knowledge in which all countries can have a common interest - benchmark learning (Karlöf, 2001). A classification model has been used to describe the variety of learning cultures (Bjørnåvold, 2000), as mutual learning takes place through geographic proximity and institutional similarities of countries. The main learning cultures in Europe are as follows (depending on the system in play):
1- dual system: learning while working, based on social negotiation; countries concerned: Germany, Austria and Switzerland;
2- Mediterranean approach: regional, flexible and implicit; countries concerned: Greece, Italy, Spain and Portugal;
3- Atlantic model: vocational training based on demand and expressed needs; countries concerned: United Kingdom and Ireland
4- North European model: governmental, regional level, with education and structured vocational training; countries concerned: Norway, Denmark, Finland, Sweden
5- French system: hierarchical & centralized (top down), based on the law, including higher education; countries concerned: France & Belgium
6-Dutch model: supply-oriented, with shared responsibilities, bottom-up implementation, country concerned: Netherlands
7- Eastern European model: hierarchical & centralized (top down), in transition; countries concerned: Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Hungary, Baltic States and Slovakia
Duvekot, 2005 & Bjørnåvold, 2000 -
Learning outcome
All the knowledge, skills and / or competences that an individual has acquired and / or is able to demonstrate at the end of a learning process
CEDEFOP, 2002 -
leadership
Being a leader does not mean running a multinational, a “unicorn”, or a CAC 40 company. You can be an employee (or volunteer) in an organization and be a leader.
Fleur Chrétien, Cadre emploi (2020) ; Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatis & Annie McKee, Harvard Business School Publishers (2001), and OECD (2021)
Leadership refers to a natural charism with which some people are endowed, which is due to their qualities, skills and savoir-être (Chretien, 2020). If management techniques are learned, leadership skills are not easily acquired. They are based on transversal skills (soft skills) such as behavioural intelligence which are more innate than acquired.
American researchers have talked about emotional intelligence (Goleman, Boyatis, McKee, 2001)
The concept of leadership is a reference in the work of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2020). It is associated with the promotion of moral authority with two main objectives: first, to ensure that persons appointed to positions of responsibility have an integrity profile – corporations with the necessary skills; and second, to support those responsible in the performance of their duties. Leadership is associated with character and style. Mechanisms must be put in place to promote and select them; incentives and rewards must be provided to foster the emergence of new generations of leaders.