Notions

• reciprocity principle

  military approach: some military manuals explain that obeying the law has practical utility in encouraging the adversary to do the same (military manuals from Germany, Canada, the United States and Israel)

  commercial relations Reciprocity comprises three aspects: prior and mutual recognition of equal treatment or the rule of non-discrimination which applies to States and citizens; equivalence between gains and charges, between rights and obligations; honest contract rule which implies good faith and loyalty (Deblock, 2010)

  electoral code: granting the right to local vote to foreigners (not only from southern countries, but also from Norway, Switzerland, Russia or China) requires reciprocity, in particular a constitutional revision with a provision providing that this right to vote is granted on the basis of agreements made with third countries so as to respect strict equality between EU citizens and others. Indeed citizens of European Union countries can vote where they reside (in any of the EU countries) because others can too. The Spanish Constitution provides for it in its article 13, that of Portugal in its article 15, that of Morocco in its article 30. This solution would make it possible to open up local political life to those who want to settle in France while respecting the equality between the European Union and the rest of the world, republican principle. Reciprocity and equality go hand in hand. (Mauss, 2012)

  manuels militaires de l’Allemagne, du Canada, des États-Unis et d’Israël & Deblock, 2010 & Mauss, 2012

• resilience

  From physics, the word "resilience" denoted the ability of a body to withstand shock. In social science, it means "the ability to succeed, live and develop positively, in a socially acceptable way, despite stress or adversity which normally carries the serious risk of a negative outcome

  Vanistendael, 1998 & BICE, 1996 cités par B. Cyrulnik, 1999 & 2002

• resistance

  act of physically resisting someone, a group, opposing their attack by force or by arms

  action of resisting an authority, of opposing what one does not approve of

  the ability of someone to withstand physical or moral hardships, of a living being to withstand extreme living conditions.

  property of a material to resist the effects of an external agent.

  force that opposes motion in a fluid

  Larousse, 2020

• Race

   this "concept" is the one that has generated the most controversy with several attempts to define it from a biological point of view, but also from a social point of view. In the human species, according to Casas (1984), "race" refers to a subgroup of people possessing a definite combination of physical characteristics of genetic origin, the combination of which distinguishes to varying degrees a subgroup of people. other subgroups of humanity. “Race” has proven to be not only a social construct, but also a political one when it has been defined differently according to governments and “human characteristics”. For example, the Nazi regime in Germany used it to distinguish people based on physical and cultural characteristics that were much more important, in their opinion, than skin color. These categorizations have changed, but they clash with modern genetics which has shown that all humans belong to one human race - physical differences obey multiple genotypic combinations (Boyd, 1963). (Definition proposed by UNIMI, Migraid project, 2019). The word "race" is used relatively recently in the French language. It dates from the fifteenth century and comes from the Latin ratio, which means, among other things, "chronological order". This logical meaning persists in the biological meaning which is imposed thereafter: the race is then understood as a set of biological and psychological traits which link ascendants and descendants in the same lineage. Breeding term, it is also applied to humans only from the seventeenth century.

  Universalis, 202

• Racism

  racism is the valuation, generalized and definitive, of biological differences, real or imagined, to the advantage of the accuser and to the detriment of his victim, in order to justify an aggression. The basis of racism, the concept of "pure race" applied to men, is ill-defined and it is practically impossible to find a well-defined subject for it. Racism is not a scientific theory, but a set of opinions, inconsistent. These opinions, far from stemming from objective observations, external to the person expressing them, are the justification of attitudes and actions, themselves motivated by the fear of others and the desire to attack them, in order to reassure themselves. and to assert itself to its detriment. Racism finally appears as the particular case of more general behavior: the use of biological, psychological or cultural differences, real or imaginary; there is therefore a "function" of racism.

  Universalis, 202

• Racialism

  neologism that designates a doctrine affirming the existence of differentiated human races and not a single human species. These races would imply differences in terms of mental and physical aptitudes, behaviors, customs. Synonymous with raciology, it compares the different human types according to their hereditary characteristics; the theorization of racism, it is based on the assumption of the existence of different races; it also explains social phenomena by means of hereditary factors. Racialism does not necessarily imply a hierarchy between races or a political use of it, unlike racism, hateful and contemptuous. The distinction is specious, racialism is often a pseudo-scientific justification and an ideological framework for racism and a means of disseminating racist ideas

  La Toupie, 2020

• religious diversity

  in France, several religions coexist within the framework of republican secularism which does not escape tensions, certain religions carrying identity claims linked to the difficulties of integrating its faithful. A recent poll indicates that 35% of French people declare themselves to be believers (38% women and 32% men); 29% say they are non-believers or atheists; 17% say they are agnostics (skeptical about the existence of a god); 12% are indifferent and 7% do not wish to answer. In this context, 47% of the people questioned declared themselves linked to Catholicism, 3% to Islam, 3% to Protestantism, 2% to Buddhism, 1% to Orthodox Christianity, 1% to Judaism and 1% to another religion. ; but 34% do not feel linked to any religion and 8% did not wish to answer (the results should therefore be interpreted with caution) (Viavoice pour l'Observatoire de laïcité, 2020). The number of places of worship gives another indication of religious diversity, in a more historical or heritage sense - 45,000 Catholic places of worship (86% of the total), 4,000 Protestants (7.6%), 2,450 Muslims (4.6%), 420 Jews (0.8%), 380 Buddhists (0.7%) and 150 Orthodox (0.3%) (Statista, 2020)

  Statista, 2020

• religious freedom

  the law of 1905 concerning the separation of churches and state (new window) extends article 10 of the Declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen of 1789 which enshrines freedom of opinion, even religious . The European Convention on Human Rights also provides in its article 9 that "the freedom to manifest one's religion or beliefs may not be subject to restrictions other than those which, provided for by law, constitute necessary measures, in a democratic society, for public security, for the protection of order, public health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others ". The freedom of conscience and the freedom to manifest one's religious affiliation are thus guaranteed. Religious freedom presupposes the freedom for everyone to express their religion, the freedom to practice it and the freedom to abandon it, with respect for public order. For the State and public services, this implies neutrality in the face of all religions and all beliefs. The state must make possible the exercise and practice of worship. (source: Vie publique, 2019 for its update- https://www.vie-publique.fr/ecclairage/20206-letat-garant-de-la-liberte-religieuse-laicite-loi-1905)

  Vie publique, 2019

• Religious pluralism

  according to Peter Berger, the distinctive character of religion in the age of secularization

  Peter Berger, 1999

• relegation, in particular in the suburbs

   the question of the relationship with the State - of its engagement or disengagement in the management of these urban enclaves -, and that of the settlement unity (mono- or multi-ethnicity) of these formations have remained central analysis criteria. This approach takes into account the national differences of a global phenomenon, that of an urban reality marked by deindustrialisation, unemployment and disaffiliation through work, the generalization of informal economies, poverty and its corollaries of assistantship, discrimination and urban violence in all their forms, contributing to a "comparative sociology of urban marginality" (Wacquant, 2006). This form of spatial exclusion is the reflection of the dualisation of society, and constitutive of "'region. moral ', disorganized, bordering on civilization, marginal and unknown, without form. "(Lapeyronnie, 2008: 150) with the use of stigmatizing terms such as" pariah ", both for residents and for sociologists (Raulin, 2007: 133-144)

  Wacquant, 2006 ; Lapeyronnie, 2008 ; Raulin, 2007

• Recognition of learning

   recognition either formal by issuing certificates, titles or diplomas or by granting equivalences, credit units or by validating acquired skills; or social through the value that economic and social actors place on these skills.

  CEDEFOP, 2002

• reductio ad Hitlerum

  reductio ad Hitlerum: in the 1950s, the German philosopher Léo Strauss had tracked down and ironically named this specious process which consists, when one no longer has any serious argument to oppose to one's interlocutor, to resort, through a form of senseless despair : make your opponent look like a Nazi because naturally no one can morally agree with a Nazi. Reducing one's opponent to the position of absolute Evil can be, inexpensively, as fruitful as it is intellectually dishonest. We arrogate to the camp of Good in an attempt to rhetorically turn the tide.

  Folman, 2021

• Republic

  government of the people, by the people and for the people. In France, from the first Republic, three great values ​​are put forward: freedom, equality and fraternity. These three words are the motto of the French Republic.

  In an etymological sense, the word "Republic" (res publica) designates common affairs, things of the State, "public affairs" as opposed to “private affairs”. The Republic is a political regime opposed to the Monarchy. The Republic is not necessarily democratic; in the Roman Republic power rested only with a minority of citizens. In France, the Republic was first proclaimed on September 21, 1792, during the French Revolution which put an end to royalty. Republic is a regime based on the sovereignty of the people and the community of citizens, its fundamental charter is the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The republican regime has definitively become the political regime of the French since September 4th, 1870, with the exception of the Vichy regime (1940 - 1944). Three republics have succeeded each other since 1870 in France: the Third (1870-1940), the Fourth (1944-1958), the Fifth (since 1958). According to the French Constitution, “France is an indivisible, secular, democratic and social republic”. (Michel Winock, Extract from Guide Républicain. The Republican Idea Today. SCÉRÉN-CNDP, Ministry of National Education, Delagrave, 2004)

  Winock, 2004